"The computer revolution
has put advanced photo manipulation and illustration tools,
as well as voluminous collections of prefabricated clip art,
into the hands of anyone with the technology know-how to
operate a mouse."[1] Educators should be aware of
the power of the technology and its impact on students.
Therefore, classroom teachers must have an understanding of
design principles when developing visuals. In today's era of
affordable technology even someone who can't draw a stick
figure can create a professional-looking product. Therefore, the question
becomes "Does the right software a great designer make?"
Considering instructional design principles, the answer to
this question is a resounding "No." This article provides
basic design principles and caveats for creating effective
visuals. The term "visuals" means not only computer
presentations but also overheads and handouts. When designing and
developing a lesson using any medium, visuals should be used
to: (1) clarify a point; (2) emphasize a point; (3) add
variety; (4) change focus; (5) record main points; (6)
enhance your professional image; and (7) mark the
presentation as special. Visuals can clarify a
point by giving students a picture. Thus, the lesson
addresses not only the auditory learner but also the visual
learner. In the same manner, visuals can emphasize a point
by highlighting that particular piece of information.
Visuals in this respect become another means of "telling
them what you are telling them." Maintaining students'
interest has always been important in the classroom.
However, in this age of computer games and television
watching, adding variety to a lesson may be the only way an
instructor can get students interested at all. Sustaining
interest is difficult when all students see or hear are
words. The use of visuals can also help students to change
focus. This application of visuals is particularly helpful
if the material being presented is complex or difficult to
follow. Further, visuals help students to record main
points, again very useful when presenting complex or
exacting materials. Instructors should always
be aware of their classroom image. Enhancing that
professional image is an important byproduct of using
well-designed visuals. It is extremely important that
visuals be well designed, or the instructor's image may be
hurt rather than helped. Finally, visuals mark a
presentation as special. Visuals in a presentation say to
students: this material is important, and the instructor
cares enough about it to spend the time to develop aids to
supplement the message. Teachers should avoid
visuals in developing a lesson when the visual distracts or
detracts from the focus, is poor quality, is irrelevant, is
only a time-filler, is outdated, does not suit the purpose
of the lesson, or does not fit the audience. Visuals do not
add anything positive when they distract or detract from the
focus of the lesson. A visual that distracts is one that
causes students to concentrate on the visual rather than the
point it was meant to illustrate. Visuals that detract from
the focus are ones that cloud the message rather than
explain it. Poor quality visuals also
add nothing to a lesson. If students cannot understand the
visual, they will spend time trying to figure out what the
visual is rather than spend that time on processing the
information the visual has supplemented. Irrelevant visuals
also waste processing time; if the visual does not
supplement, explain, or clarify the point being made, do not
use it. Remember a picture is not always worth a thousand
words. Do not use visuals simply
to fill time. "Bells and whistles" may do little to enhance
the learning process. Outdated visuals diminish a lesson's
value; anyone who sits in a lecture where the instructor
uses dog-eared notes or yellowed overhead transparencies
understands this precept. Outdated visuals send the message
that the instructor does not care enough about the material
or students to stay current. Lastly, visuals that do
not suit the purpose or fit the audience should be avoided.
Those that do not suit the purpose of the lesson lose
students' interest because they cannot figure out why the
visual is included. Instructors who use visuals that do not
fit the audience run the risk, at worst, of being offensive
and, at best, of being ignored. Certain basic design
principles are helpful when creating visuals for any medium:
(1) keep the visual simple; (2) leave lots of white space;
(3) keep the visual organized; (4) create a path for the
eye; (5) make something dominant; and (6) divide the space
in an interesting way. Keep it simple is a
reliable precept when designing for any medium. Distilling
your message to its barest essentials is important. Think in
terms of an outline. If the message on the visual is not
presented in outline form, students will lose the point
between looking and taking notes. Additionally, when an
electronic presentation is being shown in the classroom,
teachers tend to leave slides on the screen for too short a
time. Resist the impulse to click the mouse button until
students have finished taking notes. Leave plenty of white
(blank) space. Visuals, whether projected onto a screen from
a computer or an overhead projector, are not well designed
if they are simply pages of text. If students need pages of
text, provide a reference. Visuals should be appealing and
easily read; blank space used judiciously will enhance
readability. Keep the visual organized. Again, think about
an outline. Develop the visual so that the information the
visual contains is easily followed. Visuals lose their
effectiveness if students have to spend time figuring out
what goes where. The visual should be the entity that brings
the material together and provides the opportunity for an
"ah ha!". Create a path for the eye.
Remember if your students are from western cultures, they
have learned to read from left to right. When designing
electronic presentations for less proficient readers, help
them by building bullets from left to right. Recognize that
if a visual is divided into quadrants, most readers read the
upper left quadrant first and the lower right last.
Therefore, do not place essential information in the lower
right quadrant.[2] Make something in the visual
dominant. Use color and a highlighting technique such as
bolding so the main idea stands out. Use graphics like clip
art or charts. These devices act as cues to students, so
they do not waste time trying to figure out the message.
Nevertheless, remember there can be too much of a good
thing, so use these devices sparingly. Divide the space in an
interesting way. Students are easily turned off by visuals
that consistently present information in the same way.
Keeping in mind the idea of quadrants, vary from visual to
visual the location of the text with the graphic. Just make
certain that the graphic leads the eye to the
text. There are several design
hints that will enable teachers to create effective visuals.
These techniques, commonly called attention-getting devices,
are effective in helping students maintain a reasonable
level of attention and interest in the material. They
include: Using a headline will draw
the student's attention to the topic of that visual. A
headline mentally prepares the student for what follows and
serves to reinforce the main idea. Presenting only one idea
per visual also is critical. Following this principle helps
to focus the reader and to avoid any distraction. Beginning
with a large first letter attracts attention and helps
students concentrate on the material. Errors detract from
the visual's effectiveness and lessen the presenter's
credibility; checking carefully for errors is essential.
Using a framing device to distinguish a line of text or a
graphic is effective. This technique is an excellent method
for emphasizing text; it provides a visual display of
information. Color is effective for
attracting and focusing attention. However, the more color
is used, the less effective it will be, because attention is
not always drawn to what is novel. The attention-getting
effect of color can and should be used to focus on important
information. Color should function as a redundant cue, not
as an essential part of instruction.[3] Some colors,
especially yellow and green, are easier to perceive than
others. Red and blue are the most difficult colors to
perceive. Also be aware that colorblind students cannot
perceive either green or red. The use of color should be
consistent with common usages in our society. Green
signifies growth and movement; it is appropriately used when
discussing fiscal growth. Blue conveys calm. It is extremely
useful when students are hostile to the information being
presented or when their attention span is limited. Red,
although snappy and peppy, can bleed, especially when used
with a green background. If the color does bleed, students
will have difficulty reading the text and find themselves
concentrating on the variations in the color rather than on
the speaker's message. Yellow serves to highlight; it is
best used when the teacher wants students to pay particular
attention to a point. The appearance of text has
a message of its own. Fleming and Levie wrote that "text,
like pictures, diagrams, or charts, communicates a great
deal of information by its appearance on the page or screen
that is independent from the information conveyed in its
words."[4] The look of text impacts on learning as
much as the message.[5] Therefore, the text of
your visuals is critical to their effectiveness. Distill the
message to its absolute essence. Use telegraphic style when
composing and remember to be aware of the "Rule of Sixes or
Sevens." This principle means using no more than six lines
of text with no more than six words per line or seven lines
of text with no more than seven words per line. A good
suggestion is to begin each line with a verb followed by
either an adjective or a noun. Each line of text should be
parallel with the other lines on that visual; i.e., begin
with the same part of speech. Students must be able to
see the information clearly. To ensure readability use a
point size of at least 30. Be sure that the typeface is easy
to read. There has been considerable debate over the use of
serif vs. sans serif fonts. Current literature supports font
faces from each category as long as they are easy to
read. Design experts show a
slight preference for serif fonts; however, any simple serif
or sans serif font can be used. Teachers should avoid
condensed fonts. Both upper- and lower-case letters should
be used. Text composed of all upper-case letters is more
difficult to read than normal text, which is primarily
lower-case. Also remember that italics should not be used
for emphasis; it also makes text more difficult to
read. The principles outlined in
this article incorporate basic instructional design
strategies for creating visuals. While the right software
may not a great designer make, neither do these principles.
However, by following these precepts, a teacher with a
minimum of creativity and drive who is a proficient computer
user can produce professional-looking and educationally
sound visuals. Dr. Linda Szul is an
Associate Professor in the Department of Office Systems and
Business Education at the Eberly College of Business,
Indiana University of Pennsylvania. Her educational
background is in instructional design and technology. She
teaches courses in communication and the use of technology,
and has made presentations relative to the article's main
ideas. Dr. Dawn E. Woodland is
an Assistant Professor in the Department of Office Systems
and Business Education at the Eberly College of Business,
Indiana University of Pennsylvania. She studied
instructional design and technology as part of her doctoral
work. Woodland teaches courses in communication and
technology applications, and has taught workshops regarding
presentation software and the design of
visuals. References: ©2000 All Rights
Reserved T.H.E. Journal, L.L.C.
February 1998
Using
Visuals
A Few
Caveats
Basic
Design Principles
Design
Hints
Color
Text
Now It's
Your Turn
E-mail:
lfszul@grove.iup.edu
E-mail:
woodland@grove.iup.edu
1. Tascarella, P.
(1996), "Computers Put Design Tools Into the Hands of the
Common Client, Pittsburgh Business Times, December
30, 1996, p.12.
2. Szul, L. F. (1995),
"The effect of color variations in screen text on the
accuracy of proofreading from a video display terminal,"
unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Pittsburgh,
Pittsburgh, Pa.
3. Alessi, S.M., and
Trollip, S. R. (1985), Computer-Based Instruction:
Methods and Development, Englewood Cliffs, CO:
Prentice-Hall.
4. Fleming, M., and
Levie, W. H. (Eds.) (1993), Instructional Message Design:
Principles from the Behavioral and Cognitive Sciences
(2nd ed.), Englewood Cliffs, CO: Educational Technology
Publications, p. 105.
5. Woodland, D. E.
(1995), "The effect of visualization ability and computer
screen text design elements on achievement," unpublished
doctoral dissertation, Southern Illinois University,
Carbondale, Ill.